RECONCILIATON: Where do we go from here?

Many Canadians cannot imagine such a thing today, but in the Great Lakes region, from the late 17^th century to the early 19^th century, neither Indigenous peoples nor Europeans were populous enough for either to impose their ideas on the other. Instead, they met and negotiated on a “middle ground.” By 1815 however, this was already changing.[1] (Cecil Chabot, “Renewing on Middle Ground”) When the British North America Act was passed in 1867, it created a conflict of interest. It effectively made the Government of Canada both responsible for “Indians and lands reserved for Indians” and for negotiating treaties and settlements with said Indians and purchasing land from them. (Bob Joseph, 21 Things You May Not Know About the Indian Act, p.7) These two factors led to the loss of the Nation-to-Nation relationship and the start of a paternalistic relationship between the Canadian government and Indigenous peoples. Increasingly repressive and assimilatory policies on the part of the government had severe repercussions on Indigenous peoples in Canada, from the drafting of the Bagot Commission Report in 1847 to the closing of the last residential school in 1996. Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples now need to work together on practical strategies for recognizing and healing intergenerational trauma, recovering lost language and culture, negotiating self-government and self-determination, and building cultural exchange and mutual understanding.

 

Image source: http://www.otc.ca/pages/what_is_reconciliation.html

HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

“It was all normal to us as kids, me and my younger siblings.” Says Victor Linklater of Moose Cree First Nation. “We grew up with it, saw a lot of things we shouldn’t have seen and heard a lot of things we shouldn’t have heard… Kids like me… had to deal with parents who drank… and partied, then you gotta go to school, Monday morning. There was a whole mess of us… maybe the whole (student population) was like that.” In 1920, the Indian Act was amended to make school attendance compulsory for all Indigenous children aged 7-15. Duncan Campbell Scott, Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs at the time, preferred residential schools, in order to keep the children away from the influence of their parents. (Bob Joseph, 21 Things, p. 120) Many of them never came back home and many more came back traumatized and dysfunctional. Without adding physical or sexual abuse, simply separating whole generations of children from their parents at an age when they still needed them was a very short-sighted idea. Children need stability, support and affection in their lives in order to grow up into mature, autonomous and capable adults. No institution is capable of replacing the role of parents. Residential schools resulted in substantial numbers of dysfunctional adults.

            “Alcohol played a major factor in a lot of people’s childhoods in our community and it was the norm, and I didn’t want that for my family.” Says Greta Moses, also of Moose Cree First Nation. Moses’s parents were trappers, in the bush most of the year or doing seasonal work like tree planting in the summer. When she and her siblings were of school age, they were dropped off at a group home, where they would stay most of the year, while going to school. “You have a feeling of abandonment.” Moses explains, “When I really think about it now, it’s almost like how the children must have felt when they were left in the residential schools. They were literally taken away and a lot of them didn’t get to see their parents.” She admits “A lot of times I would cry myself to sleep at night.” Grief, Moses says, was found to be a major factor in people’s trauma; loss of family, loss of language, loss of culture and loss of identity among other things. “There’s a lot of healing programs now … because they see a need for it. If you’re a residential school survivor or second-generation, there is [sic] funds for people to access to work on their healing. … If you’re ready to take on the next step of your healing, it’s there, ready and available if you look. A lot of people are just not ready to deal with their trauma. It’s just too heart-breaking for the layers to come off.”[2]

            For Linklater, sports, music and one teacher, John Delaney[3], played a huge role in keeping him out of the drinking culture. Something to focus on seems to be another good path out of the cycle of abuse. So is being able to communicate properly, according to Raven Edwards-Brown, member of Akwesasne First Nation. “A lot of my (family,) they can’t communicate properly, because they don’t feel emotion, or if they do… it’s internally and they can’t physically show it. Or… they push people away.” And trauma from violence, she believes is different. “It’s hard to physically touch them. Even just a hug, or anything. I feel like not only can’t they express themselves… they can’t touch.” The first in her family to finish high school and go on to college, Edwards-Brown is breaking the cycle through art, music and writing. She writes her own songs and poetry and she interviews people as part of her classes in journalism at Dawson College. “I really like interviewing people.” She says, “Just talking to them, getting their stories. Storytelling is a huge part of communicating what others cannot.”

            While much of the healing that needs to be done is in the hands of First Nations themselves, there are things that non-Indigenous people can do, starting with acknowledging that intergenerational trauma does exist. According to Linklater, there are two main things that can be done. The first is for governments to recognize that First Nations are still here and to follow the recommendations of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. The second, he says, is “more of a one-to-one, like we’re doing. Communities can start opening up to Indigenous peoples in their backyards and inviting talks, seminars, just get together right? Just learn from one another and not let it be dictated by ‘the officials’… a grassroots approach.”

 

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

In 1896 the Programme of Studies for Indian Schools from the Department of Indian Affairs stated the importance of replacing Indigenous languages with English. Children were not allowed to speak their language, even among themselves, and were punished for doing so. (Bob Joseph, 21 Things, p. 118) Many First Nations people today, do not speak their language fluently. Parents who had been to residential schools themselves often taught their children English instead of their own language so that it would be easier for them to go to school.[4]

            Today, across the country, both Indigenous languages and culture are being revived. Separate language schools are opening, and classes are given in schools. Cree classes have been a part of the curriculum in the public school in Moose Factory, Ontario, since at least the 1970s. In Akwesasne, Edwards-Brown tells me, there are Freedom Schools, where older people who know the language and ancestry teach the children. “There’s something unsettling with having the culture but not knowing the language.” She says. “I feel like, not that a culture isn’t a culture without language, but I feel like language has a lot to do with it. Because it’s… been there… since the beginning of our people.” Until the age of six, Edwards-Brown lived in Akwesasne and was learning the language. “I… was getting pretty good at it and I was almost fluent. And then we came to Quebec and I had to learn French.”

            Globally, aboriginal languages are being replaced by majority ones. A small number in Canada are still commonly spoken, including Cree, Inuktituk, Gwich’in and Innu, but the rest have dwindling native speakers, few of which are under the age of 60. Some believe that the death of a language signals the death of a culture, however, others are not so pessimistic. Despite the decline of aboriginal languages, the same cannot be said of the culture. Hunting, fishing and harvesting practices remain, as well as potlatches on the West Coast, pow wows, the Sun Dance on the prairies, and other cultural events, including music and sports events. There are Indigenous musicians, artists, entertainers, writers and even chefs. The Aboriginal Peoples Television Network is the best-known Indigenous Television network, but it is not the only one. There is also a multitude of radio programs. (Greg Poelzer and Ken S. Coates, From Treaty Peoples to Treaty Nations, pp. 130-139)

            In Moose Factory, Moses says, “They incorporated outdoor ed into the education system so that our tradition is not lost. They’re still teaching kids how to build a fire, how to set snares, how to set traps. That is something we didn’t want lost. As for Edwards-Brown, on top of relearning her language, she is also learning beadwork, making medicine pouches, going to pow wows and learning to put on the regalia, among other things.

 

SELF-GOVERNMENT AND SELF-DETERMINATION

When Newfoundlanders joined Canada in 1949, they joined “as a distinct people with a distinct language, history, culture and set of relationships to a particular territory.” Says Cecil Chabot, Doctor of History and adjunct faculty member in Concordia University’s First Peoples Studies Program. Twenty years later, the White Paper, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau’s attempt at abolishing the Indian Act and Indian Status in order to give Indigenous peoples equal status with all other Canadian citizens was rejected because it was based on the same assimilatory policies seen throughout the country’s short existence to date. “What the majority of Indigenous peoples wanted,” Chabot explains, “was to participate in Canada, not as individuals assimilated into the body politic like new immigrants, but as equal partners in confederation – as peoples with unique languages, cultures, traditions and relationships to their lands. (Cecil Chabot, “Reconciliation and Decolonization: How might we risk getting them wrong?”)

            What First Nations want is the right to self-determination, (the right to decide who they are and who can be a member) self-reliance (the ability to participate in politics and the economy without being reliant on anyone else) and the right to self-government (the right to make decisions about things that affect them directly.) (Bob Joseph, Indigenous Relations, pp. 49-52) There are differing outlooks on what self-government should look like, from determining membership by blood quantum (percentage of ancestry) and creating essentially a separate state with its own citizenship and passport, to what some call the Two-Row Wampum, where two distinct societies would live side by side without much association, to a three-tiered government; (federal, provincial and aboriginal), and differing views in between. Not all are feasible, either politically or in practice. (Greg Poelzer and Ken S Coates, pp. 31-58) What has been done, with success, is giving First Nations governance over local affairs, similar to the power a municipality would have. The Nisga’a treaty[5] and the creation of Nunavut[6], are two of the biggest recent settlements between the government and First Nations, allowing them considerable jurisdiction over certain territories and making them responsible for the people, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous, who reside there. Besides these two, a number of smaller agreements have also been made, mostly in the north where Indigenous peoples are either in the majority or a large minority. (Greg Poelzer and Ken S. Coates, pp. 165-167) Self-government, Linklater tells me, “would take on an Indigenous lens with regards to… the economy. To run anything, you need money. Without an economy, there is no self-government. You’ll still be relying on the “Big Hand” as it were, to come down to save you… I think that the economy is the number one item to achieve self-government. After that, everything will fall into place.”

 

REBUILDING INTER-CULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS

“Why is it that white people are so scared of us?” wonders Linklater. “I get… this feeling, I don’t know what it is… an uneasy gap, the word ‘scared’ comes to mind. And you know, we’re not scary people.” Bob Joseph, blogger and counsellor on Indigenous relations, offers some insights, especially geared towards entrepreneurs, but also relevant for individuals who just want to make reconciliation a reality, starting with R.E.S.P.E.C.T.: 

• Research: Informing yourself about the people you will be contacting before you meet with them. 
• Examine: Using your research to plan, not assuming things will be done the way you are used to. 
• Strategize: Planning both verbal and non-verbal communication with care. 
• Present: Getting to know each other before presenting plans and being able to laugh at yourself. 
• Evaluate: Asking yourself what worked and what didn’t work. 
• Customize: Realizing that First Nations are varied, what works for one may not work for another. 
• Transform: Returning with customized ideas, giving long-term relationships time and patience.  (Bob Joseph, Indigenous Relations, pp. 71-139) 

In short, if you go with the flow, are open to their concerns, and able to laugh at your mistakes, you should have little trouble relating with most[7] Indigenous people.

            Moose Factory, where Linklater, Moses and Chabot are from, is a long-standing middle ground between Indigenous people and Europeans. There has been a European presence there since 1673.[8] Colonialism is not the only story here; Orkney islanders often came because they faced similar things in their own land. They came, married into the communities and added their traditions and stories to the culture. (Cecil Chabot, “Renewing on Middle Ground”) They depended on the Cree, not the other way around, and adjusted to Cree relational norms or customary law. The Cree in turn fostered good relationships with newcomers. (Cecil Chabot, “Problems with Defining Aboriginal Rights as Special, Immutable and Collective?”) Solidarity; working together and caring for the weak and vulnerable, subsidiarity; self-governance and self-determination and human dignity; respect for who First Nations are and what they bring, are key principals for rebuilding inter-cultural relationships. (Cecil Chabot, “Reconciliation and Decolonization”)

            A recent article in the Abbotsford News spoke of a First Nations mother who was upset that her daughter was told to list five positive stories or facts about residential schools for an assignment at school. (Vikki Hopes, “Abbotsford mom angry that students asked to list positive stories about residential school”) This is perhaps not the best way to address things, especially at a time when many residential school survivors and their children and grandchildren are still dealing with inter-generational trauma. Residential schools cannot be considered a positive thing. Purposely taking children away from their parents in order to assimilate them, thereby creating real issues of abandonment, grief, loss of identity, lack of parenting skills, a cycle of abuse and alcoholism cannot be considered a positive thing. Perhaps a better question to ask is, what are some of the things those who were opposed to government policies did to try to mitigate the consequences? Some people, such as physicians Dr. G. Orton, and Dr. Bryce spoke out against appalling conditions in residential schools and offered advice which the government ignored. (Bob Joseph, 21 Things pp. 118-119) Chabot also mentions in a January 2019 talk[9] given at McGill University’s Newman Centre, that at least one residential school run by Oblates[10] refused to teach the children in English, preferring for them to keep their language and traditions.[11]

            “I feel like there is a lot of tension between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people,” says Edwards-Brown, “but… there is a lot to be done with forming a proper connection, like… simply listening to each other and understanding each other.”

 

Although repression, abuse and loss of identity and culture is a result of the Canadian government’s efforts to assimilate Indigenous peoples, much of the rebuilding and the healing will have to be done by First Nations themselves. Indigenous peoples must be allowed to take the lead in initiatives to build stronger, self-sufficient communities. Decisions on health, welfare and education should be theirs to determine. Healing is a difficult process that must be undertaken by each individual. Renewal of language and culture will help with healing and regaining a sense of identity. Self-Government is something that will have to be worked out with the Canadian government, not as a broad one-solution-fits-all, but by negotiating different agreements with individual groups, as not all Indigenous communities have the same resources, needs, priorities or viewpoints. Support from non-Indigenous people can come in many forms, partnerships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous groups and individuals, cultural exchanges, or mutual support, solidarity and encouragement. Reconciliation needs to be something we can all live and work with. As Linklater tells me, “We come from a very rich heritage and culture and strong history that we’d love to share… we’d love partnership with people who are willing to do it.”

Bibliography

 

Chabot, Cecil. “Problems with Defining Aboriginal Rights as Special, Immutable and Collective? Lessons from the Context of Moose Factory, Canada.” A Talk Given at Queen’s University, Belfast, Northern Ireland. September 2009.

Chabot, Cecil. “Renewing on Middle Ground.” Convivium Magazine. August 2017

Chabot, Cecil. “Reconciliation and Decolonization: How Might we Risk Getting Them Wrong?” A Talk given at the University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada. April 2019.

Edwards-Brown, Raven. An interview with Raven Edwards-Brown. November 2020. https://youtu.be/rZaCR2XCLi8

Hopes, Vikki. “Abbotsford Mom Angry That Students Asked to List Positive Stories about Residential Schools.” 2020. Abbotsford News. November 25, 2020. https://www.abbynews.com/news/abbotsford-mom-angry-that-students-asked-to-list-positive-stories-about-residential-schools/.

Joseph, Bob. 21 Things You may not Know About the Indian Act: Helping Canadians Make Reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples a Reality. Indigenous Relations Press. April 2018

Joseph, Bob. Indigenous Relations: Insights, Tips & Suggestions to Make Reconciliation a Reality. Page Two Books, Inc. May 2019.

Linklater, Victor. An interview with Victor Linklater. November 2020.

Moses, Greta. An interview with Greta Moses. November 2020.

Poelzer, Greg and Ken S. Coates. From Treaty Peoples to Treaty Nation: A Road Map for All Canadians. UBC Press. October 2015.

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[1] Indigenous peoples are still a majority, or at least a large minority in most of Canada today, outside of the southern corridor, where most non-Indigenous people live today. (Cecil Chabot, “Renewing on Middle Ground”)

[2] “They don’t want to work on the grief on (specific people) because they don’t want to forget that person. In the beginning, that’s what I thought grief (therapy) was; working on someone and forgetting about them. And it’s like they were erased from your mind. But it’s not. It’s working through the pain associated with that person and whatever relationship you had with that person. If you had trauma, or any unresolved issues … with this person, that’s what you work on … It’s like coming to peace with that person.” (Greta Moses, interview)

[3] John Delaney was the founder of the Moose Factory YMCA and used the principles of Y leadership to instill strong values into the many youth who went through his Y leaders program. Many of the current leaders in the community are people who went through his program. He had a massive influence on them and provided a new way of thinking, a healthy way of thinking, an example that things could be better if we work at them. He provided an outlet, something else to focus on, besides the problems and the drinking. I had the pleasure of having Mr. Delaney both as an enrichment teacher and a Phys Ed teacher, participating in his Y Leader’s Corp, and playing in and refereeing basketball games in his YMCA league, as well as having him as a friend, with whom I kept up a written correspondence until his death in 2005. His daughter, Christina (Victor Linklater’s wife) continues his legacy today. He is a truly inspiring example of what can be done when Indigenous and non-Indigenous people come together and work for the better good.

[4] Christina (Delaney) Linklater told me in August 2019, that although her non-Indigenous father encouraged it, her mother did not feel at ease with teaching her children Cree.

[5] The Nisga’a treaty put more than 2000 square kilometres under Nisga’a jurisdiction and responsibility and included a payment of almost $2 million as well as a significant allocation of salmon both for personal consumption and commercial sale. It gives the Nisga’a the ability to make laws (subject to the superiority of the Constitution and the Criminal Code) and makes them responsible for such things as providing health care, education and social services to people living in that territory, among other things. In return for some funding, they gave up income tax and sales tax exemptions. (Greg Poelzer and Ken S. Coates, “Governance and Civic Engagement: Land claims” From Treaty Peoples to Treaty Nation, p. 166)

[6] “Nunavut has allowed the Inuit to participate in Canadian confederation by means of political and legal structures that combine Inuit and Western governance traditions and place Inuktitut beside English and French as official languages.” (Cecil Chabot, “Reconciliation and Decolonization: How might we risk getting them wrong?”)

[7] Some Indigenous activists that Edwards-Brown has interviewed are not interested in connecting with non-Indigenous people. “There ARE non-Indigenous people that are willing to understand, that are willing to connect,” Edwards-Brown says, “It’s kind of hard to have a conversation with people who are not open to that. To have conversations that we should be having. But we can’t have those conversations with people who get defensive, who want to block the other side out, who want to stay in their bubble.”

[8] In 1673, the Hudson’s Bay Company established a fur-trade post in what would come to be known as Moose Factory. Moose Factory is now predominantly Cree, and over half the island is reserve land, since the signing Treaty Number 9 in 1905. An interesting fact: the manager of the fur trading post back in the day was called a “factor”, and the word “factory” in this context does not mean “manufacturer” but is rather another name for “trading post.” Until recently, an accent similar to that of Orkney Islands in Scotland was common in Moose Factory. It can still be heard, especially among those older than fifty. Orcadian fiddling tunes were played on Cree fiddles, step dancing is making a come back, plaid cloth, as well as moose hide is a part of traditional clothing, and bannock, which originates in Scotland, is a staple in the Moose Factory diet often accompanied with nice hot tea. Last names such as Linklater, Sutherland, MacDonald and McLeod are proof of inter-cultural marriages and descendants of Cree can also be found in the Orkneys today, as wives and children accompanied HBC employees back home. Cecil Chabot interviewed a few of these, on a trip to the Orkney Islands for his research and upon hearing one of them speak in a recording, I could have sworn I was listening to an elder from Moose Factory speak.

[9] I was present at that talk.

[10] Catholic Religious order of priests and brothers, with a joint order of nuns, who were (and still are) active in different missions and schools across the James Bay area and much of Northern Canada since around 1844. (“Our History,” OMIAP, accessed December 5, 2020. http://omiap.org/?page_id=151 )

[11] One elder, a survivor of that school, had to have Prime Minister Harper’s apology translated to her, because she did not speak English.